Business Innovation and Entrepreneurship - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2051 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? Business Innovation and Entrepreneurship INTRODUCTION Every innovation starts with an idea that aims to make an existing process or product better, to improve the original design or to cater to different needs. Creative idea is the foundation for innovation. But what comprises an excellent idea? How does a person in power able to differentiate an idea that is only good in theory and those that actually answers real-world demands. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Business Innovation and Entrepreneurship" essay for you Create order In order for a business to be successful, they need to realize the ever changing demands of the modern world. It is no longer enough to stay plain and original. Every business needs to cope with these changes which are the usual drivers for innovation. The responsibility lies with the managementà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ability to identify opportunities through these changes. They also need to set a clear vision on what the company wants to achieve and how they want to achieve it. This as the guiding principle will enable them to match the right ideas to what is relevant in reality. The focus of this paper is to discuss important analytical tools used to recognize ideas that could lead to innovation of processes. It also discusses the criteria used to deduce which ideas are suitable and feasible for the organization. LATERAL THINKING There are two methods of thinking, Vertical Thinking and Lateral Thinking. Vertical thinking uses logic and traditional methods while Lateral Thinking avoids any common sequence and creates solution through a different point of view. In business, Lateral thinking is more encouraged when making decisions and coming up with ideas geared towards innovation in the organization. Lateral Thinkingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s simplest definition is the ability to think outside of the box. This term was first coined by Dr. Edward de Bono in 1970. It describes the manner of solving problems through different perspectives. It encourages leaving the obvious and common, and being open to the change of concepts and perceptions. Dr. Bono described Lateral thinking as being concerned not with the existing factors but in changing what already exists. It is common to find solutions through usual and predictable ways especially if the current ways still work, but the use of Lateral thinking provides a b etter and wider scope of opportunities to innovate. That is why lateral thinking is a very important criterion when identifying ideas to cultivate for an organization. VISIONING Visioning is the process of forming mental image of the desired future to serve as motivators for the present action. It pictures the success of a goal achieved on a specific time, it does not dwell on the present but on the future and for long term. The ability to visualize is a very important characteristic of a leader. It is important for a leader to have a wide imagination that will enable them to set goals, set plans and anticipates possible risks and problems that they might encounter, as they venture through the realization of their goal as a company. The companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s vision is the clear guide for choosing the course of action; every decision should answer to what the companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s vision is aiming for. It is the leaderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s responsibility to be the driver and make sure that the organization is functioning with one goal in mind. Visioning affects cultivation of innovation because when people have a clear idea of what they want a nd the success ahead, creative ideas flow more freely which benefits the whole organization. The key is to think ahead and see how an idea will affect the whole organization for the long term. PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES Having the idea and a guiding vision is not the end of the Innovative cycle. An organization needs to be equipped for any hindrance towards getting their goal. It is essential to have the ability to analyze a problem and find ways to solve them without sacrificing quality or integrity of work. Different people have different ways of dealing with difficulties. In business, it is important to be objective when dealing with problems and interruptions. That is why it is important for leaders and management to be aware of the different problem solving techniques that can be utilized when faced with such circumstances. Problem solving techniques are steps that can be used to identify the problems that are hindering the goal. The steps include acknowledging that a problem is present, defining what the problem is, planning a fix to the problem, identifying the resources available to be used, monitoring the progress and appraising the efficiency of the solution. These are the basic an d simplest approach a person can follow. There are more detailed strategies that can be used by bigger companies when dealing with difficult problems. Some of the more commonly used are Kepner-Tregoe Problem Solving, Six Sigma, Root Cause Analysis, Fishbon and TQM. Kepner Tregoe Problem Solving. This approach dwells with setting the objective, finding different options, weighing the pros and cons and choosing the best answer. This approach limits the biased decisions as much as possible. The four basic steps are Situational Appraisal, Problem Analysis, Decision Analysis and Potential Problem Analysis. Six Sigma Tools. This approach is very systematic and strategic. It follows the DMAIC model and focus on root causes to process problems. The end goal of Six Sigma is to have quality improvements and improved standard of process or product. It also focus on savings gained through the project. 5 Whys or Root Cause Analysis. This approach is quite subjective and dependent on whoever is analyzing the problem. It is simple but proven effective when finding the root cause of a problem. The 5 Whys steps are straight forward and starts with asking à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“why?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  to the problem, once an answer has been given, the next à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“why?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  will be asked until a root cause can be identified. Fishbone Diagram. This is another known tool used for finding root cause with the goal to correct the actions. This approach is also known as Cause and Effect diagram or Ishikawa. It groups causes into different categories with the causes cascading from the main categories that forms what looks as a fishbone, hence the name. TQM Tools. This approach is more robust in a way that it requires involvement of the whole organization for their implementation. The goal of this approach is to build quality process. Some common TQM practices are Process Management, Customer Involvement, Strategic Planning etc. ANALYTICAL TOOLS SWOT ANALYSIS SWOT Analysis is an analytical method which utilizes techniques that centres on the strengths and weaknesses. SWOT stands for Strength, Weakness, Opportunity, and Threat. This technique deals with the positive and negative of both internal and external factors. The idea is to cover the full scope of the problem and to assess all possibilities. This technique can be applied at any stage of the innovative cycle. It is used to discover new opportunities or answers to problems to existing processes or products. It is also used to narrow done possibilities and to arrive to the best way to solve the problem. The technique is also helpful when reviewing plans mid-course, this can result to discovering new opportunities while still on the process and can also lead to discovering imperfections on the current plans. SWOT is a proven effective technique for discovering new opportunities in business. Since it deals with all the facets of the business, the data is accurate and provides a strong foundation for coming up with a reliable action plan. The strength of this technique makes it a very important tool for Project Management. PESTLE ANALYSIS Pestle Analysis is another tool used for Business Analysis. Pestle stands for Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Legal and Environmental. This technique dwells mainly on the external factors which contribute to the success and failure of the plan. It provides different angles by looking closely in the environment where the business operates. This method is an important tool for strategic management because it looks closely on the environmental factors that affect the organization as whole. There are more opportunities for ideas that could improve current methods or processes since it analyzes a broader range. At the same time, by looking into the external factors it will be easier to track what among the existing products, service or process are no longer working or outdated. It is important for an organization to do this to stay relevant. COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS Cost Benefit analysis is another technique used which assess the benefits and associated costs to arrive in a decision. It usually runs over a given period of time and data gathered are used as basis for analyzing which path to take. This method involves these basic principles; Project appraisal, incorporating external factors in analysis, and Time bound. Using cost benefit analysis usually takes time since it must complete the set course in order to gather enough and reliable data. This type of analysis depends on finding and adding all the positive factors which is the Benefits part. Then the same steps are taken to find and add the negative factors, which are the Costs. The difference will dictate whether the plan will suit and generate positive impact to the organization. This technique can be used in any aspects but commonly used for problems with monetary involvement and thus cost will play as a big factor. DECISION MAKING PROCESSES AND STYLE ANALYSIS Decision making is the process of making a choice out of all the available options. An effective decision making, foresees the results of each available option, be able to weigh the positive and negative and conclude objectively the best choice. Different analytical tools and techniques meant to aid the decision making process. It is best to decide decisions with facts from research and statistics, these serve as proof that points are well thought and possibilities are thoroughly explored. Decision making process follows these steps: Definition of the problem Identifying limits Exploring alternatives Analysis of alternatives Selection Implementation Establish control Evaluation Different people have different ways of making decisions. Decision making involves different styles and success is dependent on how well the organization adapts and embrace it. Here are some of the commonly known styles exercised by different leaders from different companies. Decision making can be Directive. In this style, the leader has the sole responsibility in making the decision. It is assumed that the one in power has the best knowledge of the problem and can provide the best solution in behalf of the whole organization. Next style is Analytical. This style still highly involves the leader but supporting information from the team is needed to back up the decision. Conceptual style is a style where the leader involves the whole team in making concepts of each option and takes higher risks. They brainstorm together and share different inputs and tackling the problem before arriving into a conclusion. Another style is Delegation. In this style, the responsibility to make the decision is given to a group and not necessarily to the leader alone. The leader acts as a guide and decisions are based on what the group arrived at on consensus. IDEAL CHANGE MODEL IDEAL change model stands for Initiating, Diagnosing, Establishing, Acting and Learning. This model was devised to be guide when planning for any change. It has been successful and can be applied for both small and big organizations and proven to be effective in dealing with different types of challenges. This model is essential when coming up with innovations because of how the method works. It aims to continuous improvement and at the same time reduce defects that are commonly overlooked when implementing something new. The last step, learning, is especially important for this model because it encourages continuity and evaluation that there is significant improvement brought by the change. This also pushes leaders to provide ongoing management. CONCLUSION Competition in the modern world of business is constantly changing. It is no longer enough to have good product and services, they are still on the top of the companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s priority, but it is no longer suf ficient. Creative and Innovative ideas are constantly needed in order to make sure your company is not left behind. The use of different methods and techniques to analyze these ideas are essential for companies because it provides them solid and tested proof on how effective the ideas are, once applied to the marketplace.

The Unstable Mayor Of Halloween Town - 1818 Words

The Unstable Mayor of Halloween Town Stephanie S. Salas New Mexico Highlands University The Mayor of Halloween town from the Nightmare Before Christmas (1993) has a very mysterious past. It is thought that he died from a major neck injury that twisted his head a perfect 180 degrees. He has two faces (like most politicians) that he alternates with little or no provocation (one side of his face is flesh colored and happy with regular teeth, the other side is ghost white and wrought with despair and has sharp teeth). Little is known about the Mayor before his death and his time in the town of Halloween. It may be gathered that he has a history of neglect due to his fear of abandonment and bouts of depression from his low self-image and frequent feelings of hopelessness. Throughout the film, the Mayor was intentionally portrayed as mentally unstable and often seen as bipolar by many viewers. Though the mayor does have episodes of pseudo-hypomania and depression, it is not consistent with the actual manifestation of bipolar I or II. In bipolar II disorder, sufferers cycle between hypomania and depression over several months (regular cycling), several weeks (rapid cycling), or one week to the next (ultra-rapid cycling). There is some debate on ultradian cycling (ultra-ultra-rapid cycling) which could mean that symptoms of depression and hypomania are felt within the same day; however, this is not widely accepted and most psychologists argue that this is notShow MoreRelatedLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 PagesYour most important critical thinking skill is your skill at making judgments─not snap judgments that occur in the blink of an eye, but those that require careful reasoning. You are not reasoning logically if, when you want a gorilla suit for a Halloween party, the first thing you do is search for the word Gorilla in the Yellow Pages of the telephone book, and the problem here is not that you used a telephone book instead of the Internet. High-quality reasoning is called logical reasoning orRead More_x000C_Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis355457 Words   |  1422 Pagesstated shortly. .......................................................................................................................................... Example 8.2 Blood Platelet Size The article â€Å"Changes in Platelet Size and Count in Unstable Angina Compared to Stable Angina or Non-Cardiac Chest Pain† (European Heart Journal [1998]: 80–84) presented data suggesting that the distribution of platelet size for patients with noncardiac chest pain is approximately normal with mean m 8.25 and

Critical Evaluation of Evidence Samples for Students †MyAssignmenthel

Question: Discuss about the Critical Evaluation of Evidence. Answer: Introduction: While more and more health research findings were published to contribute to the social life, there has been increasing concern about the quality and reliability of this information (Rai et al., 2016). Inaccurate findings may lead to imprecise applications. To prevent the misinformation, it is vital to critically appraise the existing scientific evidence for better understanding on which information can be considered as appropriate. According to Hill et al., (2001) he defined critical appraisal as a systematic process of examining evidence of the research to prove its validity, relevance, and results before using it to make the decision. This was an essential skill to informed decision-making in health care practice (Mhaskar et al., 2009). Body: Critical Appraisal of the first article of Hildt et al This part will critically appraise an article of Life context of pharmacological academic performance enhancement among university students - a qualitative approach from Hildt et al (2014). The first thing to do when analyzing a research paper is to look at the authors and their expertise, qualifications, and role in the study (Borbasi Jackson., 2016). This research was implemented by three authors named Elisabeth Hildt, Klaus Lieb and Andreas Gnter Franke. These researchers were all Professor with a lot of experiences on the research topic. Especially, the first author is an expert in neurotics as stated in the article. Through Google scholar, it is found that they had worked together on several related topics on illicit stimulants used for mental development. They also worked at the University of Mainz where the study was conducted. The research aim and questions were stated clearly in the abstract and introduction part. The sensation of pharmacological of enhancing academic performance using illicit and prescription stimulant like the Methylphenidate among the students in the university. The research question included: Why there is the use of stimulant by the student and other people in academic content? What are some of the effect experienced by users and the consideration of value? Do the leaners gain any academic advantage if they use a stimulant? What are the side effects experienced from the use of stimulant? And finally, what are some of the impacts on students life? The aim and questions of this study were specific and appropriate with authors research intention. From the literature review, it was evident that the author realized that there was lack of scientific pieces of evidence on the research topic that could be used to upkeep the pro/cognitive things in individuals who were healthy in line with the effect of smart drug. And the extent in which academic concert can be judged from getting high, parting, and other devotions are not well indicated. Besides, it was found that the widespread use of the potential cognitive drug on campuses and high school is about the very less pro-cognitive effect and side effects mentioned in the literature and given the probability of not taking drugs as prescribed and illegal drugs. It was also realized that there was no qualitative research on the topic. The explanation for the dominant sensation of academic enactment cannot be explained by the existing epidemiological studies. And can only be speculated concerning motivational factors and deeper reasons. Therefore the author may decide to eliminate some of the lack of empirical scientific data concerning real-world effects and contextual factors of academic performance enhancement. Regarding the research methodology; this was a qualitative research utilizing an extensive self-developed semi-structured interview guideline in a face-to-face setting. With the abovementioned type of research questions, a qualitative research was the most suitable method to answer them. Regarding sampling method, participants were accessed by public invitation through placards posting on public bulletin boards in the University of Mainz campus inquiring about student who had attempted to use illicit or prescription (psycho) stimulants for cognitive enhancement devotions to contact the research team secretly via email. The exclusion criteria of participant selection were shown in the method section. The study only accommodated healthy students who had no psychiatric disorder, and current doctors instructions of medication were accommodated in the findings. Due to this limitations, only a few students participated in an interview. Only 18 students have reported the non-medical use of illicit stimulants and a prescription for academic performance. And the article did not show any statement related to the saturation criteria of this population. The data analysis was conducted to ensure the objectivity with anonymous transcriptions and two independent raters. But the interviewer bias and recall bias had not discussed yet. In specific, it could be presented when the researchers asked about their experience on negative side effects or increase in mental performance or when the participant could exchange information and interview questions in advance. Hence the selection bias was pointed out and minimized by recruiting a trained psychologist and three trained interviewers. Besides, the research time and interview places were not mentioned in the article. Local Ethics of the Medical Association Rheinland approved this study, and each participant was given a free tape-recording for the entire session as well as a written informed consent of participating in the interview. So the authors followed the process of a study as shown in the book of Dickens (Dickens, 2010). Two rates were used to form independent categories. Further analysis was made using categories with congruent content which were formed by both rates. However, there was a consideration on the blinding for participants when they could inform each other about the interview questions. Six categories were identified by the author, and those categories were involving to the life setting of stimulant used to boost academic performance. In the result part entailing context of stimulant applied exceeding boosting of academic performance timing of use, subjective experience of enhancement, pressure performance, results of enhancement, pressure of performance, and objective academic results. These categories were presented by using narrative and verbatim quotes. Under each category, the authors gave the participants detailed views on the use of stimulants and CE to answer the respective research questions. In summary, it can be concluded that this article showed the appropriate research methods and matched findings with the research questions. Nevertheless, it still had some weaknesses such as some bias have not yet mentioned and discussed; no saturation criteria was stated; minor incorrect calculation: 38.9% ? 44.4% (n=8) prescription stimulants or the allowance shouldnt be informed in advance the selection process and interview Critical Appraisal of the second article of Munro et al This part will critically appraise an article of The relationship between nonmedical use of prescription stimulants, academic outcomes and executive functioning from Munro et al (2017). The first author is doing her PhD program, and this research was a part of her doctoral dissertation accessible at the University of Rhode Island. The other three authors were PhD and had experiences on the research topic. They all were qualified to conduct this research. The main aim of the study is to distinguish the connection between executive function (EF) and nonmedical usage of prescription stimulants (NMUUPS) in a large sample of 5 regions in the US by the college students. Specifically, it was hypnotized that: There were high chances for the student who has reported EF as measured by BEFS to report the nonmedical use of prescribed stimulants than an average report of EF skills by another student. The performance of academic performance and EF would be moderated by NMUPS; Specifically, NMUPS was estimated to brace the relationship amid EF and academic brilliance. These hypotheses were appropriate with the literature presented in the introduction part. The author also found that there was difficulty in education for the students who were experiencing EF deficit and these students were being involved in risky behaviors. From the literature, it can be stated that the NMUPS are used by the students who have EF deficit to help them overcome this deficit so that they can excel in academic. However, up to now, no researcher has researched to determine the relationship between EF and NMUPS among the population of college students. So, they hope those study findings would be valuable in deceitful inhibition and intervention programs. Regarding research methods, this was a quantitative study using measures of The Stimulant Survey Questionnaire (SSQ), BDEFS and grade point average (GPA). Faculty and staff assisted in doing sampling. They forwarded emails containing a link to the survey to the students who were willing to participate and were eligible. The same data was also posted on the official Facebook web page of the public university to attract participants. The interested students who provided consent were interviewed. A total of 308 undergraduate students recruited from six public US universities. This sampling method also ensured the blinding enrolled for the study. However, it also revealed some selection and information bias that had been discussed in the limitation of the research. Instruments and its reliability and validity are the important criteria to evaluate the quality of research (Ingham-Broomfield, 2008) (Polit Hungler, 2013). The SSQ and BDEFS that respectively measure the nonmedical use of in struction stimulant medication in universities in the error of their time in school and to evaluate the measurement of EF of adults in daily life were necessary questionnaires to attend to the research question. Good reliability was demonstrated as a proof of high internal consistency. IRB proved this study at six public universities located in southern, northern, southwest, south-east, northwest, and central-Midwest of US but not from Ethical Committee. Additionally, no statement was declared for informed consent. Hence, it was not followed the standard of an ethical issue, and the participant might be not free from harm (Dickens, 2010). Regarding the results, it would be consistent with two above hypotheses and concisely presented by tables and interpretation that was more visual for the readers (Burns Grove., 2009) (Richardson-Tench et al., 2016). However, the information in the tables and the interpretation was not quite relevant. For instance, the population of the endorsed participant with an idea of students nonmedical use stimulant that is prescribed while reading, in the final week more than 71% use stimulant that is not prescribed. 70.5% are used during exams while during tests (62.7%) were shown in table 2 as wrote in the article. P value also was not marked in the tables. It was hard for readers to follow the research findings. To sum up, this study had some strengths involving in good instruments and data analysis, but the weakest points were ethical issue and presentation as well as interpretation of findings. The application of evidence in practice should not be ignored because of individual barriers of the study population (Greenhalgh et al., 2016). The targeted group was the students who normally lack understanding on using stimulants. As indicated in both studies, stimulants were used not only for academic performance enhancement but other purposes. They also have limited skills to refuse of using this kind of smart drugs. Besides, they lack research skill to understand thoroughly on the risk of using drugs whereas Munros study also has not proved the relationship between stimulant use and EF deficits. It is clear that there were limited readers in this research topic. The topic related to psychology and neuroscience is quite difficult that not everyone can understand it. Concerning organizational barriers, it was costly access these research papers. In other hands, the universities would not interfere too much with students life. Therefore, the support for the student will be lacking. Also, there was still a long way for researchers to have shreds of evidence on the risk of using smart drugs for academic enhancement. More resources and budget will be needed. In Munro et als article, the PICO elements were provided clearly while in Hildt et als study, there was no comparable group due to the type and design of this qualitative research. The population of two studies was also the university scholars who were popularly using the nonmedical use of prescription drugs Conclusion To sum up, the answer to the clinical question is unclear. It cant be concluded whether stimulants increase academic performance in university students or not. It depends much on the way to implement a study to produce research findings on that topic. Further studies should be conducted on this problem, and some meta-analysis based on applied research findings will be able to give the most reliable answer for that question. References Borbasi, S., Jackson, D. (Eds.). (2016). Navigating the maze of research: Enhancing nursing and midwifery practice. (4th ed.). Chatswood, Australia: Elsevier Dickens, B. M. (2010). Ethical issues in health.MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES-Volume VII, 92. Greenhalgh, T., Bidewell, J., Crisp, E., Lambros, A., Warland, J. (2016). Understanding Research Methods for Evidence-Based Practice in Health 1e. Grove, S. K., Burns, N., Gray, J. (2013). The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis and generation of evidence (7th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier/Saunders Hildt, E., Lieb, K., Franke, A. G. (2014). Life context of pharmacological academic performance enhancement among university students - a qualitative approach. BMC Medical Ethics, 15(1), 23-23. doi:10.1186/1472-6939-15-23 Hill, A., Spittlehouse, C. (2001).What is critical appraisal?(Vol. 3). Hayward Medical Communications. Ingham-Broomfield, R. (2008). A nurses' guide to the critical reading of research.Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, The,26(1), 102. Mhaskar, R., Emmanuel, P., Mishra, S., Patel, S., Naik, E., Kumar, A. (2009). Critical appraisal skills are essential to informed decision-making.Indian Journal of Sexually Transmitted Diseases,30(2), 112119. https://doi.org/10.4103/0253-7184.62770 Munro, B. A., Weyandt, L. L., Marraccini, M. E., Oster, D. R. (2017). The relationship between nonmedical use of prescription stimulants, executive functioning and academic outcomes. Addictive Behaviors, 65, 250-257. doi:https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.08.023 Polit, F. D., Beck, C. T. (2013). Essentials Nursing Research Methods, Appraisal, and Utilization. Lippincott, Willams Wilkins. Raj, S., Sharma, V. L., Singh, A. J., Goel, S. (2016). Evaluation of Quality and readability of health information websites identified through indias major search engines.Advances in preventive medicine,2016. Richardson-Tench, M., Taylor, B., Kermode, S., Roberts, K. (2016). Inquiry in health care (5th [ACU] ed.). South Melbourne, Australia: Cengage Learning.

Identifying Hallmark of Cancer Biology with detailed †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Identifying Hallmark of Cancer Biology with detailed. Answer: Metastatic cancer is a type of cancer in which cancer cells transfer to different organs in contrast to the site where it was first formed. The other part of the body in which it forms the new tumor is called as metastatic tumors. Metastatic of cancer takes place in a complex system of heterogeneous cell population. One of the hallmarks of metastatic cancer is the invasion of cell from local areas to distance tissues. There are many other mechanism underlying development of metastatic cancer such as sustaining proliferative signaling, evading growth suppressors, overcoming immune destruction, tumor promoting inflammation, invasion, angiogenesis, mutation, resisting cell death and deregulation energetic (1). This essay gives more insight into each hallmark of cancer and its contribution to cancer development. Furthermore, the essay also discusses in more detail about the hallmarks of sustaining proliferative signaling and resisting cell death and the role of specific chemotherapy drug s targeting these hallmarks. Hallmarks of cancer development: The 10 hallmarks underlying metastatic cancer development and their role in metastatic dissemination are as follows: Sustaining proliferative signaling: The most fundamental mechanism for cancer cell development is their ability to proliferate constantly. Compared to normal cells, cancer cells deregulate the growth promoting signals resulting in unlimited growth as they are no more dependent on proliferation signals. Tumor cells acquire the property to sustain proliferative signaling by producing their own growth factors causing autocrine stimulation. The production of paracrine signal also enhances growth of normal cells. In addition, their reliance on growth factors are reduced by the constitutive activation of downstream signaling pathways (2). The downstream signaling pathway is activated by somatic mutations in the catalytic subunit of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3-kinase) (3). This indicates the mechanism by which cancerous cell grow and develop. Evading growth suppressors- Evading growth suppressors is that hallmarks of cancer cells that complements the process of sustaining proliferative signaling. The ability to evade growth suppression is a necessary process to sustain growth signal as this mechanism acts to prevent all those pathways that negatively influence cell proliferation. TP53 and RB are some tumor suppressive protein coding gene involves in inhibiting cell growth and mutation or deletion of these genes results in the developments of cancerous tumors in patient (3). Another mechanism by which cancer cells inhibits the function of tumor suppressor genes includes interaction of the ncRNA fragments with tumor suppressor proteins. This results in release of high levels of PSF-binding RNAs from tumor cell line (4). Hence, role of ncRNAs in evading growth suppressors gives clear insight into mechanism behind cancer development. Avoiding immune destruction: Immune evasion or avoiding immune destruction is also one of the hallmarks of cancer development. This process also acts as a major barrier in designing anti-cancer therapeutic strategies. The evasion of immune attack occurs by creating an immune suppressive environment by means of tumor variants resistant to immune effectors. Cytotoxic T cells and CD4+ and T helper cells produce interferon and cytotoxin to inhibit the development of cancer cells, however the process of chronic inflammation counteracts immune response and promotes cancer development. The tumor cells also exploit regulatory T cells (Tregs), defective antigen presentation and immune suppressive mediators and apaptosis mechanism to evade immune response. In the case of cancer metastasis also, the mechanism of detaching from primary tumor and travelling through the surroundings tissues occurs by avoiding immune destruction (5). Enabling replicative immortality: Enabling replicative immortality is the third trait of cancer which indicates the potential of cancer cells towards unlimited replication. Normal cells cannot pass through large number of cell division cycles; however tumor cells possess the potential to unlimited replication. Tumor cells possess unlimited replication potential by way of circumventing the loss of telomeres that determines the number of cell division cycles. Tumor cells are able to control the loss of telomeres by the expression of telomerase enzyme and the activation of telomere tandem lengthening pathway. Long ncRNAs also plays a role in replicative immortality as it acts as the regulator of genome stability and replication (3). Tumor promoting inflammation: In the process of cancer development, it has been found that the negative effect of the immune system results in cancer development. The presence of white blood cells in tumor cells gives indication of the relation between inflammation and cancer development. The complex interplay between immunity and inflammation causes the development of cancer cells. Tumor promoting inflammation (TAM) and anti-tumor immunity regulates the pathway for formation of tumor. Tumor associated macrophases also provides the environment for tumor growth, invasion and metastasis (6). From this evidence, it can be said that TAM cells plays a major role in tumor promoting inflammation and cancer development. This knowledge can be effectively utilized to design cancer treatment options. Activating invasion and metastasis: Another mechanism that is regarded as a hallmark of cancer includes their ability to invade and form distant metastases. The step towards invasion and metastatis initiates when morphological changes occur in cancer cells. The invasion-metastasis reaction occurs when cancer cells are able to escape immune surveillance and move from primary regions to target tissues to form micromestastases. The expression of E-cadherin, a cell-to-cell adhesion molecule is also one of the important factor of the invasion-metastasis cascade. In contrast to down regulation of E-cadherin in human carcinomas, N-Cadherin is upregulated in invasive tumors (7). Inducing angiogenesis: Inducing angiogenesis is also a trait found in cancer cells. The main advantage of this trait is that the process of angiogenesis prevents the natural diffusion limit of oxygen and nutrients. The process of angiogenesis is necessary for wound healing and tumor progression turns on the angiogenic switch thus helping to sustain tumor growth. The mechanism behind angiogenesis includes binding of the angiogenic regulators to receptors on the endothelial cells (8). Certain evidence has also given indication about the role of ncRNAs in facilitating the angiogenic process (3). Genome instability and mutation: Genome instability is also one of the properties of cancer cell. Genome instability is the increased likelihood of genomic alterations during cell division. Genome stability is necessary for cellular integrity, however the opposite process of genome instability leads to the progression and development of tumor. The presence of genetic unstability factor in cancer cells results in a shorter cell cycle and evasion of immunological control mechanism. This provides cancer cells the advantage of proliferation and transforming into a malignant cell. The process of genetic instability is associated with structural changes like variations in base pair mutation and function of microsatellite. There various contrasting evidence regarding the mechanism underlying genetic instability. One hypothesis is that occurs by the loss of gene function (9). More research in this area may help to identify chemotherapeutic drugs that target this hallmark. Resisting cell death: Another established hallmark of cancer development is the ability of cancer cells to resist cell death. Three mechanisms contribute to cell death. Firstly, the mechanism of apoptosis leads to controlled cell death. This occurs because the cancer cells lose the ability to show mutation and activates the expression of anti-apoptotic regulators like Bcl-2. TP53 induces apoptosis. Autophagy is the second mechanism attributing to cell death. The property of cells to break down their organelles provides many beneficial effects to cancer cells (10). Necrosis is the third mechanism contributing to cell death. Necrosis is a phenomenon in which necrotic cells releases their content into the local tissue microenvironment. By this process, it releases many pro-inflammatory signals into the surrounding tissue. The necrotic cells act as the source that facilitates the process of angiogenesis, proliferation and invasion in cancer cells. PCGEM1 is regarded as the ncRNA that pla ys a role in anti-apoptotic functions (3) (Refer-Figure 1). Deregulating cellular energetic: Deregulating cellular energetics is also one of the attributes of cancer cells. Normal cells produce energy the process of glycolysis, whereas the malignant cells increase their source of energy by the upregulation of glycolysis. This phenomenon of increases utilization of glucose is known as the Warburg effect. Hence. The continuous activation of gylcolysis in cancer cells leads to activation of oncogenes and progression of cancer. The tumor suppressor genes and the mutated oncogenes plays a major role in deregulating cellular energetic. Normal cells have several signaling networks that activates metabolic pathways for cell reproduction. However, many byproducts produced during aerobic metabolism such as reactive oxygen species result in DNA mutation and cell damage. This change in cell metabolism is the factor resulting in tumorigenesis. The mutations in the tumor suppressor genes and oncogenes change many signally pathways thus triggering the proce ss of tumor development (11). Hence, from the above evidence, it can be said that the Warburg effect is the mechanism that results in metabolism of tumor. Cancer cells finds glycolysis as a source of energy. Hence, it can be said that there is direct relations between tumor malignancy and glycolytic ATP production. By understanding this phenomenon behind cancer cell development and the dependence of cancer cells on glucose utilization, many therapeutic interventions can be designed. Sustaining Proliferative Signalling One of the major hallmarks of cancer is sustaining proliferative signalling (13). One of the major characteristic of cancer cells is their ability to proliferate at a constant rate even in the absence stimuli coming from the external growth factors (13). Normal cells strictly manipulate the production of the growth initiating and inhibiting factors in order to ensure a tight control of the tissues and cell number, integrity of the tissue and architecture. However, tumour cell physiology is completely different from the normal cell lines. They showcase deregulated signalling cascades that promote them to be more or less free from the effect of the signals of proliferation which results in the unlimited cycles of proliferation. In order to attain this immortal capability, the tumours cells attain the capability of sustain proliferative signalling. This power of sustaining proliferative signalling is acquired by the tumour cells in different ways for example they generate their own grow th factors and their complementary receptor molecules thereby resulting in the process of autocrine stimulation (14). Other pathways which are undertaken by the tumour cells in order to attain sustaining proliferative signalling include paracrine signalling which help in the production of numerous growth factors that support the development of cancer cells. The growth factor receptors are also constantly expressed in the tumour cells and this help in sustained proliferation via continuous binding of the growth factors with its receptors on the tumour. In extreme cases, the cancer cells become totally independent from the effect of the exogenous growth factors because of constitutive activation of the downstream signalling pathways or other disruption of negative-feedback mechanism (14). In order target the cancerous cell in the ground of sustained proliferative signalling, PI3K/Akt pathway is being targeted by the chemotherapeutic drugs. This is because, PI3L/Akt signalling pathways plays an important role not only towards the growth of tumour but also act as a potential response of tumours towards anti-cancer treatment (15). Acquired resistance towards treatment with chemotherapy, radiation and targeted therapy. Cisplatin, a chemotherapeutic drug, induces the activation of Akt pathway and thereby promoting cell death. Active Akt has been found to be present in numerous cisplatin-selected chemo-resistant lung, ovarian and glioma cancer lies in comparison with the sensitive parental counterparts. Combined treatment done under the application of Ly294002, a PI3k inhibitor not only helps in the attenuation of cisplatin induced Akt activity, but also increases cisplatin induced cytotoxicity and this indicates that the process of Akt activation is caused under the effect of upregulation of PI3K and this makes cancer cell lines more resistant towards cisplatin. Numerous mechanisms have been have been proposed in order to mediate the cisplatin-induced PI3K/Akt activation (15) (Refer: Figure 2). The cisplatin-resistant NSCLC a549 cells on stepwise exposure of increased concentration of cisplatin has been found to increase Akt1 activity via increasing the protein level and increased gene expression in comparison to that of the parental cells. On the other hand, the levels of pAkt signals in the lung cancer tumour are inversely proportional towards the cisplatin sensitivity towards the primary cultured cancer cell lines of the lung from identical tumour tissues. The Cisplatin-induced Akt activation is dependent on the EGFR activity which lies upstream of PI3K. Cisplatin-induced phosphorylation of EGFR is associated with EGFR internalization along with ATM and ATR-dependent activation of p38 and this occurs as a result of cisplatin-induced DNA damage. This activated p38 causes the internalization of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Internalized EGFR causes downstream phosphorylation of the tyrosine residues and thereby active further downstream tumour suppressor protein p85. This p85 is another important component of PI3K and thus help in the prevention of sustained signalling and thereby promoting cell death (16). Another chemotherapeutic drug that is found to prevent sustained signalling in cancerous cell line is Etoposide. Etoposide is a podophyllotoxin which is kown to casr peliotropic actions within the cells including inhibition of the action of topoisomerase II, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and subsequent induction of DNA damage. This DNa damage actives PIK3-Akt kinase signalling pathway which in turn found to cast an effective impact towards the treatment of gastric cancer (17)(18). Resisting Cell Death The aim of immortality for the cancer cells can be easily achieved if the cancerous cell acquires the hallmark of resting cell death. There are three important pathways that promotes cell death and careful regulation of three of these pathways help in the achievement of the immortality of the cancerous cell. The first mechanisms that promote towards controlled cell death include apoptosis. The process of apoptosis is initiated via numerous external and internal stimuli and numerous studies have highlighted that cancerous cell which are malignant in nature can attenuate the process of apoptosis and thereby becoming resistant towards cell death. In normal cell, the induction of DNA damage is one of the main markers towards the initiation of apoptosis. DNA damage, promotes the expression of the pro-apoptotic proteins Noxa and Puma (upregulated modulator p53, apoptotic gene) causing cell death. However, more than 50% of all human cancers have lost the signalling pathways mediated by p53 gene or p53 gene remain mutated and this lead to termination of the process of apoptosis even during the cell damage. Alternatively the tumours represents show an increased level of expression of numerous survival factors or other anti-apoptotic regulators like Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL. This can be regarded as one of the second important mechanism that repress controlled cell death or autophage. The cellular mechanism of autophagy operates at low levels within the cell line. However, it can be alternatively activated via numerous kind of cellular stress factors like nutrient deficiency. Autophagy is considered as a cell-recycling program that enables the cell to break down into their organelles and then to employ the degradation of the products towards the process of fuel biosynthesis pathways or for re-usual for subsequent energy production within the body. However, autophagy can act both as strength and weakness of cancerous cell. This weakness comes in the form of blocking the pathway fo r carcinogenesis. The last mode of cell death that is negatively impaired in cancer cell line is necrosis. Necrosis is defined as a process of un-controlled cell-death that occurs mostly with the damaged or injured cell lines. Similar to that of autophagy, necrosis can also serve to be beneficial as well as harmful for the cancerous cell lines. In the beneficial grounds, the negative regulation of necrosis in cancer cell lead to the uncontrolled cell proliferation and the other hand, necrotic cell lines have also found to attract the proinflammatory cell mediators causing death of the cancer cells (14). In order to induce apoptosis in cancerous cell, the chemotherapeutic drugs like the cisplatimum or etoposide triggers apoptosis via the activation of TP53 pathways (2). Alterative research has showed that over-expression of the anti-apoptotic protein from the Bcl-2 family like Bcl-2, Bcl-xl is found to contribute chemotherapeutic resistance in cancers cell. One of the strategy that is used to destroy this anti-apoptotic protein include application of interfering oligonucleotide that downregulate the expression of the Bcl2 family of proteins. Controlled expression of Bax protein or application of BH-3 peptide has been found to abrogate protection againt the antiapoptotic protein in cancerous cell. One agent that is present gaining importance in the clinical trials is oblimersen. It is a nuclease-resistant antisense oligonucleaotide that targets Bcl2 mRNA. However, Oblimersen is still in Phase II and II clinical trials and is used to treat a wide range of adult and childhood tumours (1 9) (20). Oblimersen is still not approved for the treatment of melanoma this is because the results published from the phase III trials failed to show any extended survivals of the patients. On the other hand, oblimersen has been shown to produce favourable outcome when it is combined and injected along with docetaxel in the patients who are suffering from hormone-refractory prostate cancer (19)(20). Another drug that is used to induce aopotosis is 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU). It is mainly used for the treatment of colorectal and breast cancer. 5-FU mainly targets p53 mediated cell apoptosis. However, one of the major disadvantage of 5-FU is, it becomes non-functional among the p53 independent cells (21). 5-FU is an uracil analogue. It has fluorine atom located at the C5 position of the pyrimidine ring. Once 5-FU is transmitted inside the cell, it gets converted into active metabolites like, fluorodeoxyuridine triphosphate (FdUTP), fluorodeoxyuridine monophosphate (FdUMP) and fluorouridine triphosphate (FUTP). These metabolites promotes global RNA metabolism via incorporating FUMP ribonucleotide into RNA as well as DNA. This incorporation either ocuurs directly or occurs via thymidylate synthase (TS) inhibition leading to a wide range of abnormal biological effects which trigger controlled cell death or apoptosis (21). 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